Re-Designing an Athabasca University Course (25%) The Task — You are a member of a leading instructional design consulting organization, Athabasca Star and Associates. The Director of the Centre for Distance Education at Athabasca University has been concerned about flat enrolment figures for the Masters in Distance Learning (MDL) program over the last three years, and has hired you to provide recommendations for the use of the latest learning technologies and generally providing some new impetus to the program.
In this regard, to show what is possible, the Director has asked you to revise and update one of its core distance education courses, MDDE 601: Introduction to Distance Education. Your design should reflect "best practices" based on research and theory on human learning. The course currently exists in a mixed mode format—a combination of course manual and readings (print), and web-based activities (discussion forums and resource links). The Director is interested in improving the instructional design of the course material via the application of relevant learning theory and is looking for practical recommendations about how to go about this in an online, web-based environment.
The Students— The students for this course consist of a mixture of Canadian and International adult learners with varied educational and work backgrounds. Some have extensive instructional experience at the K-12 and higher education levels, while others come from business and industry settings. Most of the learners take the course while working full time. All are interested in improving both their theoretical and practical knowledge of distance education design techniques, and in learning how to apply these in distance delivery settings.
The Course Content— The current course contains appropriate content and uses updated course texts. You are certainly welcome to add materials, updated readings, Internet sites, and so on. The Director has examined the existing course and feels the bulk of the information presented is still useful. S(he) is, however, open to a significant revision of how this content is organized and taught, and has asked you to examine the course and to make some recommendations on how to revise this course based on learning theory.
The Task— The Director intends to share your recommendations with other faculty and has asked you write a brief report and proposal containing your recommendations. Being a busy higher education administrator, he has you to restrict the report to 10 — 15 pages, double-spaced, 12 pt. font. He has asked you to please not exceed this limit (including all components such as references and appendices).
The Director also reports that his faculty are quite conservative in outlook and unlikely to be persuaded by theory they do not regard as 'scientific". Therefore, in your report, you are asked to work only with one or more of the learning theories considered to date in the course (Behavioural and Cognitive Theory - up to the end of Unit 3). Write a brief set of recommendations for the re-design of this course. Outline the changes you would make to the course manual and the website, providing specific examples from the existing course content Remember that the intent is to make instructional, not content, adjustments. Provide justification, based on learning theory, for your recommendations.
Course Redesign Using Learning Theory – Assignment 1
Pam Perry Student Number 3092444
Athabasca University MDDE 603
Behavioral vs. Cognitive Learning Theories
Prior to assessing the MDDE 601 course for improvements, it is essential to understand the fundamentals of the learning theories being examined. Both behavioural (behaviorism) learning theory and cognitive information processing learning theory will be explored. In examining the two different learning theories, recommendations will be given for improvements to the course. Although the learning theories are very different, some of the same recommendations result from both the behavioral and cognitive learning theories.
A behavioral theory, founded by B. F. Skinner, behaviorism, is explained in terms of events. Behaviorism focuses on observable, measurable phenomena. Internal processes such as thoughts, motives or emotions are not measurable as they are not able to be observed or measured. Learning is only perceived to occur when a change in behavior has occurred. For the course re-design, a specific form of behaviorism called operant conditioning will be the focus. Operant conditioning is based on the assumption that situations or events serve as cues for responding. Operant conditioning proposes that consequences that are reinforced, increase behavior while consequences that are punishing, decrease behavior. Behaviors therefore can be shaped towards the desired behavior (Schunk, 2012). Mental processes do not come into play within behaviorism. In behaviorism a change in behavior signifies that learning has occurred.
Cognitive Learning Theory
The cognitive information processing theory focuses on attention, perception, encoding, storage and retrieval of knowledge (Cite: main book). Information enters Short Term Memory (a form of Working Memory) where it is retained through rehearsal and linked with related information in Long Term Memory (LTM). Anything that needs to be remembered must be transferred from STM to LTM by being encoded. LTM is organized by content, and information is cross-referenced with any related content (Schunk, 2012).
Due to the learning theories being fundamentally different, opposing views exist between the different theories. Operant principles have been challenged by cognitive theorists who contend that by ignoring mental processes, an incomplete account of human learning is represented (Schunk, 2012). Although behavioral and cognitive learning theories have opposing views, both learning theories still hold merit in teaching.
In assessing the distance education course MDDE 601, opportunities for improvement will be explained along with the corresponding learning theory to support implementing the revisions.
Instructional implications with regard to the cognitive learning theory include the following four functions of instruction (Driscoll, 2005): Activate prior knowledge using advance organizers and schema signals. Advance organizers are materials presented before the actual learning materials are provided. They are presented at a higher level than the material to be learned and general enough to be useful for different types of learners (“Advance Organizers”, n.d.). Advance organizers are meant to "bridge the gap between what the learner already knows and what he needs to know before he can meaningfully learn the task at hand" (Driscoll, 2005). Organizers direct learners’ attention to important concepts to be learned, highlight relationships among ideas, and link new material to what students know (Schunk, 2012). In instructional situations the activation of prior knowledge should not be left to chance. A variety of strategies can be utilized to help learners relate their prior knowledge to new information they are to acquire (Driscoll, 2005). Learners must have necessary prior knowledge for the organizers to activate, and the organizer must draw explicit connections between old and new topics (Driscoll, 2005). In using advance organizers, a connection may be drawn from the information stored within STM to the cross-related information within LTM. Through the use of having this link or connection, learning is improved.
A Commentary section should precede each unit within the course. Material must be organized so that connections are easily made between new information and that which is already known (Driscoll, 2005). The course participants come from different ethnic backgrounds varying within K-12 to higher-education and business, therefore it is important to include information from different perspectives. It is essential to provide students the information needed to allow them to be successful towards meaningful learning and have the information conveyed in a sufficiently general way for such a varied group. The Commentary section should include information that is more abstract and inclusive than the information within each unit.
The instructor for MDDE 601 should follow these procedures to construct advance organizers. Studies suggest following the steps described below ensure advance organizers are present to connect old information to the not yet known information (Driscoll, 2005).
· Examine the new unit information to discover the necessary prerequisite knowledge and re-teach any information if necessary.
· Find out if students know the prerequisite material. This can be accomplished through the use of discussion postings and assignments. The instructor can determine whether students know the prerequisite material.
· List or summarize the major general ideas in the new unit.
· Write a paragraph, which contain the advance organizers, emphasizing the major general principles, and similarities across old and new topics.
· Ensure the main subtopics of the unit are covered in the same sequence as they are presented in the advance organizers.
Make instructional materials meaningful with comparative organizers and elaboration. Instructional materials must be in a readable format that students will understand. When learners encounter instruction that makes no sense to them, it becomes an impossible task to call upon prior knowledge, because there is no way to know what knowledge will be relevant. If the information is not understandable to learners, the learners will memorize the information through repetition. To facilitate student learning, it is recommended that instructors indicate to students the schematic structures of text materials (Driscoll, 2005). By indicating text material in this method, readers pay more attention to the important information, as well as providing a foundation for more effective encoding. (Driscoll, 2005). To apply this theory recommendation within the course, all written material, such as the Commentary page or the Assignment page, should follow a standardized format that would be meaningful to learners. These standardized formats should include simple listings, comparisons/contrasts, and cause/effect.
To make the MDDE 601 course design more meaningful to learners, it is therefore recommended to explain the various forums available to the students. In addition, more detail should be included on guidelines for posts. The forum post guidelines should specify a grading scheme to allow students to understand how to obtain full marks, a recommended length for posts and how many posts should be completed for each discussion forum. For each assignment, a rubric should be included detailing what elements should be included with a corresponding point value.
In some areas of the course, the design and lack of instructions will confuse students. In Unit 4, there should be instructions describing the discussions for this unit. It appears there are multiple Student Forums with no instructions for students to know which forum to use or any discussion questions to post within the forum. A clear definition of which students should be included in each Student Forum and questions to discuss within the student groups should be detailed in the Introduction page. All pages should be reviewed to ensure instructions are clear and comprehensible.
Elaboration should also be a consideration. Elaboration is the process of expanding upon new information by adding to it or linking to what one knows. Elaboration assists encoding and retrieval because they link the to-be-remembered information with other knowledge (Schunk, 2012). Instructors should send a “wrap-up” email to students at the end of each unit to clarify and elaborate on the information covered.
Instructions for any outside resource that is required should be included to make the information more meaningful. For Assignment 1 within the MDDE 601 course, students may not be familiar with how to access the AU Library. Resources should be provided to explain how students could access the library site. The assignment is to create a critical review yet limited information is provided on the suggested format in writing a critical review. A resource link should be provided to instruct students on the proper method to create a critical review.
Use thought-demanding activities to promote skillful use of mental models. The MDDE 601 course could benefit from having improved learning activities within each unit. To help learners develop the ability to understand a topic, thought-provoking activities are recommended to promote the skillfulness of mental models. Mental models are dynamic models for problem solving based on a learner’s existing perceptions of task demand and task performance (“Unit 3: Cognitive theory and constructivism”, n.d.). In having students perform learning activities within each unit, the learner’s current understanding-so-far is displayed and by asking the learner to solve problems, make decisions and adapt old ideas to new situations, the learner’s understanding is furthered (Driscoll, 2005). Many of the learning activities included in the course could be improved. The “Academic Integrity Tutorial” and “Creating a Personal Learning Environment” learning activities should allow the learner to perform the activity, post any results or reflections on the task to allow students to discuss the topic with others in the class.
In using the learning activities, problem solving will play a crucial part. One of the most important types of cognitive processing that occurs during learning is problem solving (Schunk, 2012). Various ways exist to help students improve their problem-solving skills. Questions should be posed to allow students to state the problem in their own words, decide what information is relevant and then to formulate an answer (Schunk, 2012). This format should be utilized for Discussion Questions within the course.
Provide new contexts and examples to apply prior knowledge. Learning activities should allow students to get a sense of how the knowledge being learned could be utilized in the real-world. New ideas should be attached to anchoring ideas that are already present (Driscoll, 2005). Students who believe that learning is useful have increased motivation to learn. Instruction should include knowledge to motivate students to learn while considering students’ pre-existing ideas (Schunk, 2012). The MDDE 601 course participants come from varied backgrounds, such as K-12, higher-education and business which should be taken into account. Learning activities should be flexible enough to allow students to take the learned knowledge to apply to their specific situations. Learning activity questions could be phrased to have students draw upon their own experiences and create solutions for their specific situation.
Behavioral Learning Theory
Behavioral learning theory can also provide suggestions for improvements to MDDE 601. The Personalized System of Instruction (PSI), which stems from the behavioural learning theory, will provide direction for changes within the course. The PSI method of instruction intends to improve student achievement while replacing the long tradition of punishment in education with the use of positive consequences for learning (Grant and Spencer, 2003).
In examining the 5 characteristics for PSI’s method of instruction, areas where improvements to MDDE 601 are detailed.
In the first characteristic, “Stress on the Written Word”, the instructional content is presented in written form rather than via lectures (Grant and Spencer, 2003). Teachers normally prepare written study guides designed to assist students with learning. This provides additional support to a recommendation that was suggested earlier – a Commentary section should be included prior to each unit. The Commentary section/study guide should contain study objectives and questions that will focus students’ attention on important material to be learned, and provide a clear indication of what students are expected to do. The teacher should include any comments used to clarify difficult points, include thought provoking questions to stimulate student’s interests’ in exploring the subject matter further.
“Unit Mastery”, the second characteristic, states that the course content is separated into portions called units. Before students can proceed to the next unit, they must demonstrate that they learned the unit’s material (Grant and Spencer, 2003). In having discussions in each unit, the teacher can assess unit mastery from reviewing student postings. Questions should be thought provoking based on the unit’s readings. The questions posed to students in MDDE 601 are basic questions. The questions should be more complex to promote deeper discussions amongst the students. In having more thought-provoking questions, teachers can assess unit mastery of the main concepts of the unit. MDDE 601 is a 13 week course that is separated into 6 units. For a course this length, 10-15 units are recommended (Pear, 2002). It is evident that too much content is contained in some of the units. In Unit 2 there are multiple topics that would be better suited to be in divided into separate units.
To re-emphasize a previous recommendation also based on the cognitive theory, a wrap-up email should be sent by the instructor to conclude each unit. In doing a wrap-up, any concepts that students may have had issues, could be re-emphasized. The main concepts within the unit can be restated, reminders for students of any upcoming due dates and to make a connection of how the last unit relates to the upcoming unit.
“Use of Proctors” is the third characteristic within PSI (Grant and Spencer, 2003). To help students learn the material, proctors or tutors are available as a resource to students. Proctors can administer unit assessments, and provide feedback regarding unit performance. The addition of proctors would be beneficial to the course. A recent graduate of the course or graduate students within the distance education program could act as a proctor and assist students throughout the course. Within discussions, proctors can analyze the postings and help clarify problem with any of the concepts that students may be experiencing. Additionally, proctors could engage students by asking thought-provoking questions or suggest additional readings within the discussions. Students could gain a deeper understanding of the content through the help provided by proctors.
The last two characteristics of the PSI approach are “Lectures and Demonstrations” and “Self-Pacing” (Grant and Spencer, 2003). Lectures are de-emphasized and optional with PSI which is already in place with the design of the MDDE 601 course so no course change would need to be performed. The self-pacing characteristic allows students to progress throughout the course at their own self-pace. Again, no change required to satisfy the “Self-Pacing” characteristic.
After reviewing the behavioral and cognitive learning theories, recommendations have been proposed to improve the MDDE 601 course. Throughout the assessment, the behavioral and cognitive learning theories were considered. The behavioral learning theory was shown to be based on observable events that could be measured, with internal processes such as thoughts or motives not playing a role. Learning is said to occur only when there is a change in behavior. The cognitive learning theory was also examined. Within the cognitive theory the focus was on attention, perception, encoding, storage and retrieval of knowledge. Although the two learning theories are fundamentally different, it has been shown that many of the recommendations gain support from both the behavioral and cognitive theories. It is suggested to implement the changes described within the assessment to promote student learning.
References
Advance Organizers. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://cehdclass.gmu.edu/ndabbagh/Resources/IDKB/strategies.htm
Driscoll, M. P. (2005). Meaningful learning and schema theory. In Psychology of learning for instruction, 3rd ed., Boston: Pearson Education, Inc.: pp. 111-152.